Seppuku (切腹, meaning ‘cutting [the] belly’), also sometimes called harakiri (腹切り), kappuku (割腹), tofuku (吐腹), bappuku (場腹), or zanpuku (残腹), is a form of symbolic & ritualistic suicide by disembowelment in Japan. Initially reserved for samurai as part of their code of honor (Bushidō), it was also practiced by other Japanese individuals during the Shōwa era, particularly by military officers toward the end of World War II, to restore honor for themselves or their families.
As a practice among samurai, seppuku was employed voluntarily to preserve honor and avoid falling into enemy hands, where they would likely face torture. It was also used as a form of capital punishment for samurai who had committed serious offenses or brought shame upon themselves. The ritual involved disemboweling oneself, typically using a short blade like a tantō. The samurai would stab the blade into the abdomen and slice it from left to right. If the incision was deep enough, it could sever the abdominal aorta, leading to death by rapid blood loss.
One of the earliest recorded instances of seppuku occurred with Minamoto no Tametomo, who fought in the Hōgen war and was exiled to Ōshima after his defeat. Attempting to take control of the island, he faced suppression by enemy forces and chose to commit seppuku in 1177. The practice of seppuku became more formalized when, during the early years of the Genpei War, Minamoto no Yorimasa also chose seppuku, composing a poem before his death.
Seppuku allowed warriors to avoid capture, mitigating the shame of falling into enemy hands and the possibility of torture. It could also be ordered by a samurai’s daimyō (feudal lord) as a punishment. In some cases, disgraced warriors were permitted to perform seppuku as an alternative to execution by other means. The standard procedure involved cutting open the abdomen, followed by the samurai extending their neck for an assistant to decapitate them with one clean strike. Failure to do so would bring dishonor to the assistant and their family. Non-samurai were not expected to commit seppuku, and samurai generally required permission to carry out the act.
At times, a daimyō might be compelled to commit seppuku as part of a peace settlement, weakening the defeated clan and ensuring the cessation of resistance. Toyotomi Hideyoshi used this tactic on several occasions, with the most significant being the forced suicide of Hōjō Ujimasa, the retired daimyō of the Hōjō clan, after their defeat at Odawara in 1590. This act effectively ended the Hōjō’s reign and shattered the most powerful daimyō family in eastern Japan.
Concept
In the context of Japanese feudal-era morality, seppuku had social significance: when a disgrace occurred, an individual could take responsibility through self-judgment and resolute action, thereby preserving not only personal honor but that of their family or clan. It was also called jiketsu (自決/じけつ, self-determination, suicide) or jisai (自裁/じさい, lit. taking one’s own life, suicide)
From the early modern period onward, seppuku was also adopted as a method of execution, and during the Edo period, it became the most severe punishment assigned to samurai. Interestingly, it was expressed as “being permitted to commit seppuku” (seppuku wo yurusu), indicating a certain honor. The execution space was carefully prepared, with new tatami mats and surrounded by curtains, underscoring the importance of dignity. Heavier punishments like beheading, crucifixion, or hanging were reserved for lower classes, such as peasants or townsfolk.
The reason seppuku became customary is partly attributed to Inazō Nitobe, who noted in Bushido that there was an ancient anatomical belief that the soul and emotions resided in the abdomen. Thus, bravely cutting the stomach was seen as an appropriate way to uphold bushido through death. However, some right-wing and imperial scholars have criticized or disputed this view.
Motivations for Seppuku
- Oibara (追腹): Following one’s master in death.
- Tsumebara (詰腹): Taking responsibility for a duty or failure.
- Munembara (無念腹): From deep frustration or regret.
- Sashibara (指腹): Naming an enemy and cutting the belly first to force them into reciprocal seppuku—a form of vengeance in line with the bushido principle of mutual destruction.
Other motivations included avoiding the disgrace of being captured as a defeated general or exchanging one’s life to secure the safety of one’s family or soldiers during a siege. Commanders also sometimes ordered seppuku as punishment for battlefield disobedience.
History in Japan
Heian Period (794–1185)
There is a record from 988 (Eien 2) where Fujiwara no Yasusuke, after being arrested, attempted suicide by slashing his abdomen and died in prison the next day. While instances existed, it wasn’t a standard or honorable form of suicide. Methods varied widely, such as biting a blade and leaping from a horse or drowning in armor.
Kamakura and Nanboku-chō Periods (1185–1333 / 1336–1392)
In the Taiheiki, Murakami Yoshimitsu, a retainer of Prince Moriyoshi, performed seppuku as a decoy and reportedly tore out his intestines and hurled them at the enemy before dying.
Muromachi and Sengoku Periods (1336–1573 / 1467–1615)
Seppuku became more formalized. The custom of committing junshi (following one’s lord in death) began during this time. One notable case was Shimizu Muneharu, who performed seppuku per peace terms with Toyotomi Hideyoshi. His dignified behavior led to seppuku being regarded as an honorable act.
Edo Period (1603–1868)
Seppuku was the heaviest punishment a samurai could face, equating to beheading for commoners. However, it was not always granted. For example, Matsukura Katsuie, who mismanaged the Shimabara Rebellion, was executed (not granted seppuku). Over time, seppuku became more formal and symbolic—sometimes indistinguishable from a beheading in practice.
Junshi was initially popular, with retainers of Matsudaira Tadayoshi and Yūki Hideyasu following them in death. However, this was banned in 1663. A legal document, Meiryō Kōhan (1684), classified junshi into:
- Gibara (義腹): From genuine loyalty.
- Ronbara (論腹): To match a peer.
- Akinai-bara (商腹): Hoping for family reward (although this rarely occurred in practice).
In 1840, Kudō Yukihiro wrote Jijinroku, a “manual for seppuku”, lamenting the decline of bushido.
A total of 417 confirmed cases of seppuku occurred during the Edo period, including voluntary acts like oibara. Of these, only 20 occurred in Edo’s main prison (Tenmacho), mostly related to political purges like the Ansei Purge and the Sakuradamon Incident.
The last samurai to commit seppuku in the Edo period was Tsuge Masakatsu, in 1604, following a revenge killing.
Late Edo to Meiji and Modern Era
Tosa Loyalist Takechi Zuizan was ordered to commit seppuku during the Bakumatsu period. He cut his abdomen in three strokes before being finished off by two assistants.
Seppuku was also used to express dissatisfaction with one’s lord (munenbara) or for revenge (sashibara), where a symbolic sword was delivered to the enemy’s family for them to perform seppuku in turn.
Meiji Era and Beyond
Seppuku remained legally recognized for a few years. In 1870, leaders of the Kōgo Incident were ordered to commit seppuku in Tokushima. In 1872, four individuals were sentenced to self-decision (jizai) after the Maruyama Incident. In the same year, Hattori Morinori, who surrendered after a killing, was sentenced to seppuku due to his status and honorable surrender.
The final case of legal seppuku in Japanese history was in 1872, when 12 former retainers carried out a revenge killing (the last known katakiuchi) and were sentenced to self-decision.
On June 13, 1873, the Revised Penal Code abolished seppuku as a form of punishment, unifying all such penalties under imprisonment. From this point, death penalties included beheading, hanging, and exposure of the head (abolished in 1879). After the Old Penal Code was enacted in 1882, hanging became the standard.
Still, the last known public beheading occurred in 1886, when two individuals convicted in the “Aomori Husband Murder Case” were executed in front of the Aomori prison. If accurate, this would mark the final public and illegal execution (under current law) via beheading in Japan.
Continued Use in Modern Times
Even after its legal abolition, seppuku persisted as an honorable form of military suicide. Notable figures include:
- General Nogi Maresuke (following Emperor Meiji)
- General Ushijima Mitsuru, Lt. Gen. Chō Isamu, and Vice Admiral Ōnishi Takijirō during WWII
- Army Minister Anami Korechika, who committed seppuku after the war.
Modern incidents include:
- The “14 Martyrs of Daitō-juku”, a group suicide in traditional form in 1945 at Yoyogi Park.
- Writer Yukio Mishima, who famously performed seppuku after a speech at the Ichigaya military base in 1970 (the Mishima Incident).
- 2019, a right-wing activist committed seppuku near Yasukuni Shrine.
Recognition Abroad
In 1669, The History of Japan by Montanus, published in Amsterdam, introduced the custom of seppuku with illustrations. This book was translated into German, English, and French, gaining widespread readership.
When Japan opened its doors to the world and various pieces of information flowed to the West, seppuku was introduced as one of the most eccentric cultural practices. It became known as one of Japan’s most famous customs. The reason for this overseas attention was partly due to the taboo nature of suicide in the West, as well as the idea of samurai not fearing death.
In the West, the explanation in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, published in the late 19th century, was long considered the standard. The details of the method were not thoroughly depicted. However, in 1959, the Funk & Wagnalls Standard Reference Encyclopedia, published in the United States, offered a detailed description of the practice, based on testimonies of people who had witnessed seppuku firsthand. This source included information and details that were not found in Japanese encyclopedias.
In 2017, a British man committed seppuku, shocking both Japan and the rest of the world.
Rituals and Procedures
In the Sengoku period and early Edo period, there were cases of seppuku without an assistant (kaishaku), and extreme methods such as cutting the abdomen in a cross shape and pulling out the internal organs were used. These were depicted in military chronicles. In such cases, the person would often collapse from shock or peritonitis due to excessive blood loss, making the act extremely difficult to perform. However, there are reports of cases where this method was successful.
During the Edo period, Seppuku got more codified, and new rules were instated which required that the ritual involve at least 2 people:
- Seppukunin: The person performing seppuku
- Kaishakunin: The assistant, known as kaishakunin (介錯人, lit. ‘assist mistake person’) would be responsible for decapitating the individual or showing the head to the inspector; this role is called Kaishaku (介錯). Since cutting the abdomen alone would take time to cause death and cause intense pain, the kaishaku would usually carry out the decapitation immediately after the cutting. By the early 18th century (around the Kyōhō era), the ritual of seppuku, including the kaishaku’s role, became well-established.
Kaishaku (介錯) – Killing Ceremonial Assistant
The role of the kaishaku, who assisted the person performing seppuku, was generally given to someone chosen from among the individual’s household, and failure to carry out the decapitation properly was considered dishonorable for the family
There were three main types of kaishaku:
- Primary kaishaku, who would decapitate the individual
- Secondary kaishaku, who would assist with the ceremonial blade or move the short knife
- Tertiary kaishaku, who would be responsible for checking the head after the decapitation
Methods of Disembowelment
The method for cutting the abdomen was usually one of two forms: a single horizontal cut (ichimonji), or a cross-shaped cut (juumonji). However, many could not manage such a severe cut and would often die from stabbing their throat, which was considered a common outcome. Over time, the role of the kaishaku and the specific manner of the ritual became established.
The location of seppuku varied according to the rank of the samurai. A high-ranking samurai would perform seppuku at the house of their overseer, while lower-ranking samurai might do so in a garden or prison. Lower ranks such as ashigaru (foot soldiers) were not allowed to commit seppuku.
Weapons Used in Seppuku
In the practice of seppuku, two weapons were commonly used: the wakizashi and the tantō.
Wakizashi
The wakizashi was a short sword typically ranging from 30 to 60 cm in length. It was part of the samurai’s standard kit, along with the katana, and was used for close combat. During seppuku, it was often employed for the act of self-disembowelment. The wakizashi’s short length made it suitable for such a task, as it allowed for controlled movements.
Tantō
The tantō was a smaller, double-edged dagger, usually ranging from 15 to 30 cm in length. It was the most commonly used weapon in seppuku. The blade was often wrapped in rice paper to prevent the samurai from accidentally cutting his hands while drawing it. The tantō’s small size and sharpness made it effective for the ritual, allowing the samurai to perform the act with precision.
These weapons, deeply connected to the samurai’s way of life, were vital tools for maintaining honor and following the strict codes of behavior in feudal Japan.
As the Edo period progressed, the ritual of seppuku became more formalized. Instead of a real knife, the person performing seppuku might use an ornamental fan or even a cloth to simulate the cut, and the kaishaku would often decapitate the person immediately upon the gesture.
Other forms of Seppuku without disembowelment
Ippuku
For those unable to carry out seppuku due to the intensity of the ritual, an alternative form of suicide known as ippuku (poisoning) was sometimes provided.
Symbolic Seppuku
In some cases, particularly during the Edo period, the act of disembowelment was only mimed. The samurai would reach toward his abdomen as if to make the first cut, but the kaishakunin (assistant) would decapitate him immediately to spare him the agony.
This was often done for high-ranking individuals or as a gesture of mercy.
Kaishaku-only Seppuku (No Self-inflicted Wound)
In rare instances, especially by the 19th century, no abdominal cut was made at all. The samurai simply knelt in the ritual position, and the kaishakunin performed the beheading.
This was often allowed when the samurai was of noble rank or had the shogunate’s favor.
Female Ritual Suicide
Female ritual suicide, often referred to incorrectly as jigai in some English sources, was practiced by the wives of samurai who had either committed seppuku or brought dishonor upon their family. Some women from samurai families chose to end their lives by cutting the arteries in their neck with a single stroke, using a knife such as a tantō or kaiken. The primary goal was to achieve a quick and certain death to avoid capture or rape. Before dying, a woman would typically tie her knees together to ensure her body would be found in a “dignified” pose, despite the convulsions of death.
Invading armies often found themselves entering homes to discover the lady of the house seated alone, facing away from the door. Upon approaching her, they would find that she had already taken her own life before they reached her.
One of the most well-known examples of female ritual suicide is that of the wife of Onodera Junai, one of the Forty-seven Ronin, who prepared for her suicide after her husband’s seppuku. The tied legs were a feature of female seppuku to maintain a respectful posture even in death.
History
Stephen R. Turnbull provides extensive evidence of the practice of female ritual suicide, particularly among samurai wives in pre-modern Japan. One of the largest mass suicides occurred after the final defeat of Taira no Tomomori on April 25, 1185. Another significant instance was the wife of Onodera Junai, who followed her husband’s seppuku, becoming a notable example of female ritual suicide in the context of the Forty-seven Ronin. The defeat of the Aizu clan during the Boshin War of 1869 also marked a period of many female honor suicides, which continued into the Meiji era. In the family of Saigō Tanomo, who survived the war, there are records of twenty-two female honor suicides within one extended family.
Religious and Social Context
Ritual or honor suicide by drowning was a common practice, especially among certain religious groups. The religious context surrounding ritual suicide is illustrated by thirty-three Jōdo Shinshū adherents at the funeral of Abbot Jitsunyo in 1525, who had faith in Amida Buddha and believed in rebirth in his Pure Land. However, male seppuku did not have a distinct religious context. In contrast, the Christian beliefs of Hosokawa Gracia, the wife of daimyō Hosokawa Tadaoki, prevented her from committing suicide, demonstrating how religious faith could influence personal decisions surrounding death.
Seppuku as a Form of Capital Punishment
Though voluntary seppuku is the most widely known, obligatory seppuku was more commonly used as a form of capital punishment for disgraced samurai. This was typically applied to those guilty of serious crimes, such as rape, robbery, corruption, murder without provocation, or treason. The samurai would be informed of their crimes and given a set time, usually by sunset on a particular day, to perform seppuku.
If the individual refused to comply, an executioner might carry out the ritual. In this case, the traditional act of disembowelment could be replaced by decapitation, though elements of the seppuku ritual, such as the placement of a tantō (dagger), might still be maintained. However, for uncooperative offenders, a fan might be used instead of the knife to prevent it from being used as a weapon. This involuntary form of seppuku was seen as disgraceful and dishonorable.
Unlike voluntary seppuku, which sometimes allowed for the family of the offender to be pardoned, forced seppuku did not offer such leniency. The family could face severe punishments, including the confiscation of property, loss of rank, forced labor, or even execution.
Seppuku was viewed as the most honorable punishment for samurai. In contrast, zanshu (斬首) or sarashikubi (晒し首), which involved decapitation and public display of the head, were reserved for samurai guilty of more severe crimes. Commoners, on the other hand, faced harsher penalties, such as kamayude (釜茹で), or death by boiling.
Over time, forced seppuku came to be known as “conferred death,” reflecting its use as punishment for criminal samurai.
Most famous Seppuku Story – The Tale of the 47 Rōnin of Akō
Among the many historical accounts of seppuku, none is more revered or emblematic of samurai ideals than the story of the 47 rōnin of Akō. It represents the ultimate expression of loyalty, honor, and devotion, the cornerstones of the samurai code, or bushidō.
The events took place in 1701, during the Edo period. A conflict arose at the shogun’s court between Asano Naganori, the daimyō of Akō, and Kira Yoshinaka, the master of protocol. During an altercation, Asano wounded Kira with his wakizashi—a short sword—an offense deemed unforgivable in the presence of the shogun. As punishment, Asano was ordered to commit seppuku, and his lands were seized. His retainers, now masterless, became rōnin—samurai without a lord.
For two years, these 47 former samurai lived in obscurity, carefully plotting their revenge against Kira. Knowing full well that their actions would lead to death, they disguised themselves as wanderers and tradesmen, hiding their true intent. Then, on a snowy night in 1703, they stormed Kira’s mansion, killed him, and brought his severed head to their former lord’s grave at Sengaku-ji Temple in Tokyo, leaving a written declaration of their actions.
As expected, the shogunate could not overlook their defiance. Yet, impressed by their loyalty and adherence to bushidō, the shogun allowed them to die with honor. All 47 were sentenced to commit seppuku.
To this day, the graves of the 47 rōnin remain at Sengaku-ji Temple, where visitors pay tribute to these legendary warriors. Their story continues to symbolize the very essence of samurai virtue.
Seppuku and Research
Seppuku, being a unique cultural practice of Japan, has drawn attention from researchers and enthusiasts. In the English-speaking world, the term “harakiri” became an accepted word and was included in the Oxford English Dictionary.
In 1900, Nitobe Inazō, in his book Bushido: The Soul of Japan, explored the practice, suggesting that the ancient belief in the spirit residing in the abdomen might have been one of the origins of seppuku.
Difference between Seppuku and Harakiri
In summary, seppuku and harakiri denote the same act—suicide by disembowelment—but harakiri refers to a quick, non-ritual act often performed by a samurai on the battlefield just before capture, while seppuku refers to a planned, ceremonial act performed when a samurai had lost his lord or dishonored himself.
Harakiri was typically carried out alone, often on the battlefield during Japan’s feudal era, to avoid capture by the enemy. It was a more painful and informal death, lacking ceremonial elements. In Japanese culture, the word harakiri is considered crude or vulgar.
Seppuku, on the other hand, followed a carefully planned ceremony. It was performed when a samurai had lost his lord or committed an act that dishonored him. This ritual was solemn and structured, reflecting a deep sense of duty and honor.
Influence
In the field of life sciences, one of the genes responsible for inducing apoptosis is named “Harakiri.” The Harakiri gene governs neuronal death during brain ischemia and neurodegeneration caused by Alzheimer’s disease. This is named due to the association between “apoptosis = cellular suicide = seppuku.”
The cultural and national impact of seppuku is said to have had a significant effect after the Meiji period when Bushido was transformed into a national moral code through education. It is argued that most of the Japanese population today supports the death penalty, with only a small minority advocating for its abolition. This is due to the idea of self-sacrifice, where one atones for their actions through death for the sake of honor, which became ingrained as “Japanese tradition.”
In sumo, the highest rank of the referee (gyōji) carries a short sword, which is said to symbolize their readiness to commit seppuku if they make a serious mistake during a match. However, historically and in the present day, no referee has actually committed seppuku. In case of such a mistake, the standard procedure is to submit a resignation letter to the Japan Sumo Association, although no referee has actually been accepted for resignation and retired in this manner.
Figurative Expression
Seppuku is also used as a figurative expression, referring to forced resignation in modern usage.
Outside Japan
China
Although seppuku is considered a uniquely Japanese custom, a similar practice of disembowelment exists in China (known as “剖腹” in Chinese). For example, in the story of “Hong Yan Na Gan” from the Lüshi Chunqiu, a loyal official named Hong Yan cuts open his abdomen to place the liver of his slain lord inside his own body before dying, as an act of loyalty. In the Records of the Grand Historian, the figure Nie Zheng also performs a fatal self-inflicted wound to his abdomen as a courageous act in front of his enemies. Other figures, like Rong Liang in the Book of the Later Han and An Jin Zang in the Old Book of Tang, also cut their bodies to demonstrate sincerity, showing their intestines to prove their loyalty (An Jin Zang survived surgery and was praised for his courage by Wu Zetian).
In the modern era, during the Cultural Revolution, there were instances of Communist Party members committing public seppuku after being falsely accused of crimes. The relationship between Chinese disembowelment suicides and Japanese seppuku is unclear. However, in contrast to Japan, disembowelment in China was typically performed by non-military individuals as a way of demonstrating sincerity, whereas Chinese warriors more commonly performed “self-beheading” (自刎) by cutting their own throats.
Korea
During the Korean War, Major General Ahn Byeong Beom of the South Korean Army committed seppuku.
Europe
Maurice Pange sees the origin of seppuku’s spirit of dying for honor in the self-inflicted death of Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis in ancient Rome.
Is seppuku still performed today?
No, seppuku is no longer practiced in modern Japan.
While seppuku was a deeply ingrained part of samurai culture during feudal Japan—used as an honorable form of death to avoid shame or punishment—it was officially abolished in 1873 by the Meiji government during the modernization of Japan. This was part of a broader move to dismantle the feudal class system and samurai privileges.
While it is not practiced today, seppuku remains a powerful cultural symbol and is still discussed in literature, films, and historical studies.